Cesare Borgia
In the late 15th century, Romagna belonged to the Papal States but in fact the region’s towns and cities were dominated by the local families, who seized power by transforming the municipal institutions of the time into seignories and triggering a wave of continuous unrest. The succession of popes during that century and the previous one had made several unsuccessful attempts to reassert papal authority, and to consolidate a region that was too unstable and most of all, highly exposed to attacks from nearby states. This situation changed radically when a new actor entered the scene: Cesare Borgia (1475-1507), the son of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia (1431-1503) who in 1492 was to become Pope Alexander VI.
Cesare Borgia was destined to combine his personal ambitions with his father’s political, military and dynastic aims— the ideal candidate to bring Romagna back under a single, stable domain and transform it into a bastion on the northern border of the Church States. Cesare was the recipient of his father’s support and ambition for the Borgia family, which materialised in a three-way alliance that included not only the pope and Cesare but also Louis XII, King of France. Louis needed the Pope to annul his marriage so that he could marry Anne of Brittany; Alexander VI, for his part, would be able to count on French military power to reinstate and consolidate his control over that important duchy, while Cesare would become the executive officer in this plan, by finding the land and the strength to realise his ambitions. Louis XII summonsed the younger Borgia to France, finding him a bride fit for his rank, Charlotte d’Albret, and creating for him the title of Duke of Valentinois (hence the name “Il Valentino”), even allowing him to bear the three fleurs-de-lis of France on his crest and seal. The political and military motivations behind this alliance and its respective roles were expressed in a message sent by Louis XII to the City of Bologna on 5 November 1499, requesting free passage for the French soldiers taking part in the first campaign launched by Borgia. ‘Valentino’, for his part, was able to make the best of this protection (which in itself was to prove decisive), thanks to his personal qualities. A skilled soldier and politician, his defining characteristic was perhaps his immense ambition and ruthlessness, to the extent that Niccolò Machiavelli – who as the ambassador to Florence would come to know Cesare personally - saw him as the model of the Renaissance prince. The motto he chose was “aut Caesar aut nihil” (“Either Cesare or nothing”) and his actions, together with those of his father and sister Lucrezia, created a sinister reputation around the Borgia family that would significantly influence the historiography of his relationship with Leonardo.
Cesare’s plan was to unite Romagna into a single duchy, and from there conquer other minor seignories in central Italy to expand and consolidate his domain, again with support from the French king, with the aim (not always effective) of not disrupting the equilibrium of the dominant powers. After accompanying Louis XII to the gates of Milan on 6 October 1499, following the expulsion of Ludovico Sforza (“Il Moro”), at whose court Leonardo da Vinci had been hosted for years, Cesare travelled down to Imola, which he captured on 11 December after a siege of several days, before turning to Forlì, which fell on 12 January 1500 after the futile resistance of Caterina Sforza, the duchess of both cities. Borgia then left Romagna for several months but in the meantime, on 31 July 1500, the citizens’ council of Cesena (the seignory of the Malatesta family having ended in 1465 with the death of Novello Malatesta) agreed to hand over power to Valentino. The duke returned, taking possession of Pesaro on 28 October followed by Rimini on the 30th of the same month, after expelling Pandolfo IV Malatesta. From Cesena, the city he chose as the seat of his duchy, he began to organise his administration of the region. In November 1500 there was an assault on Faenza, but the operation was immediately called off due to snow. Cesare spent Christmas in Cesena and the New Year in Porto Cesenatico, eventually capturing Faenza at the end of April 1501 after imprisoning the young lord Astorre Manfredi, who was later executed in Rome. At that point Cesare wanted to attack Bologna, but was unable to do so as Louis XII saw it as his own domain. Thanks to a treaty, Cesare did manage to seize Castel Bolognese from the Bentivoglio family, while his father formally established his domain with the title of Duke of Romagna on 15 May. Florence was also barred to Borgia but that did not prevent him from venturing into Tuscany, conquering Piombino and the island of Elba in September 1501 and taking his duchy as far as the Tyrrhenean Sea. In Tuscany, Cesare had the support of several local noblemen such as Vitellozzo Vitelli of Città di Castello, thanks to whom the revolts at Arezzo and the Chiana Valley were raised against Florence the following year. At the end of 1501, Cesare was able to consolidate his power in Romagna through acts of government and by embarking on a programme of public works. A few months later, he started a new campaign which culminated on 20 June 1502 with the capture of Urbino, followed by Camerino a day later.
However, as the year 1503 dawned, the territorial expansion of Cesare Borgia’s duchy was coming to an end. Even Louis XII himself called a halt to further conquests, which would have disrupted the delicate fragile equilibrium in central-northern Italy. But the event that would lead to the inevitable fall of ‘Valentino’ was the death of his father, Pope Alexander VI, on 18 August 1503, removing the protection and authority that came from the now weakened alliance with the French king. Cesare was now alone, facing a scenario that had very quickly turned hostile to him: after the very brief pontificate of Pius III, which lasted just twenty-six days, the papal throne was passed to Julius II (Giuliano della Rovere). The family of the new pope were adversaries of the Borgias and immediately removed Cesare from his position as governor of Romagna, ordering him to be imprisoned in Castel Sant’Angelo. After an escape and various daring attempts to regain power, Cesare Borgia was forced to return to Spain, where he took refuge with his brother-in-law. Cesare was killed on 12 March 1507 during a clash with rebel at the castle of Viana with a group of rebellious vassals who, not realising who he was, even stole the clothes from his corpse. Romagna appeared to be once more at the mercy of the local noble families and a target for nearby states, particularly Venice, which was seeking to extend its network of ports and coastal domains to include the western shores of what it saw as its own gulf, the Adriatic Sea. Cesena, which had nurtured the dream of becoming the capital of a duchy “knew not whether it was a city of the pope, of the duke, of the French or of the Venetians or the daughter of the duke and Feltreschi or of the squire” as reported by a chronicler of the day, Giuliano Fantaguzzi. But in just a few years’ time situation had stabilised. In 1509, the League of Cambrai won a battle at Agnadello, halting the advance of Venice in Romagna, a region which would then remain part of the Church States for more than three and a half centuries, until the unification of Italy.
And now, a look at the towns and cities of Romagna...
Cesena
During the period of occupation by Valentino, there had been a kind of stasis in artistic commissions in Romagna. It was as if the patrons and the artists themselves were awaiting an explanation; they displayed a kind of diffidence towards a rootless government that offered no guarantee of stability. The rapid conquest had not been entirely convincing and perhaps the fact that the Duke’s fortunes depended too heavily on the life of his father the 70-year-old pope, was all too clear.
Work did continue on certain projects which had already reached an advanced stage. But it does appear that no new artistic endeavours worthy of note were started between 1500 and 1503. In almost all the cities of Romagna, the only works that progressed were the modest foundations of votive chapels, funerary chapels and burial chambers, such as the chapel built in 1500 at the Chiesa dei frati dell'Osservanza di Cesena (Church of the Observance) by the elderly Maltosello Malatesti, illegitimate son of the last lord of Pesaro, a former pupil and heir to Malatesta Novello.
Forlì
Midway through November 1499, Cesare Borgia established his residence in Castel Bolognese, which was outside the territory of Bologna. From there, he embarked on a military campaign against Caterina Sforza and the sons of her dead husband Girolamo Riario. But on 24 November 1499 Imola threw open the doors to Cesare once again, and the fortress fell during the first half of December. Nor did the inhabitants of Forlì oppose Borgia, who entered the city the following 17 December, but here the fortress was more heavily armed and defended by Caterina Sforza in person, although it was destined to fall, on 12 January 1500. Cesare Borgia took the role of papal vicar in both of these cities. Today, in the courtyard of the fortress it is possible to see the crest of Cesare Borgia, at the place which, according to unverified tradition, marks the breach in the wall through which ‘Valentino’ entered the castle.
So what could Leonardo da Vinci have been doing in Forlì? Examples include the fortifications: the castles of Ravaldino and San Pietro and the walls, completed just a few years earlier by Caterina Sforza. Or the complex system of watercourses (it is certain that in 1502 alterations were made to the water mills of Ravaldino) and the sought-after Port of Forlì, a project long dreamed of but never realised at the mouth of the Grata canal, between what is now Viale Italia and Via Isonzo, with a wide canal that would have led to the sea. This was to pose a challenge that would certainly have excited Leonardo’s ingenious spirit, although there is no documentary record of it.
In 2009 a stir was caused in Forlì, about the controversial suggestion that the mysterious woman depicted in the Mona Lisa was none other than Caterina Sforza, painted between 1503 and 1506. The theory, initially put forward by the German scholar Magdalena Soest, was later supported by the Australian researcher Maike Vogt-Luerssen, who engaged in a process of innovative and painstaking iconological study which created a sensation, due to the curious connection between Da Vinci’s celebrated painting and the “Tigress of Forlì”. By comparing the faces of the Gioconda with the “Dama dei Gelsomini”, a portrait of a young woman kept at the public art gallery of Forlì and presumed (although there appear to be few similarities) to be a portrait of Caterina Sforza, there are some coincidences. The beautiful portrait of Forlì does appear in some way to be connected to the Mona Lisa, perhaps the most famous painting in the world, now kept at the Louvre. Leonardo certainly did meet the Tigress of Forlì: in 1503 they were together at the court of the Medici in Florence.
If Leonardo da Vinci did not remember Forlì, could this have been due to the tormented jealousy of “Il Valentino”, who, knowing that the artist was acquainted with Caterina Sforza, feared that the Maestro would have reminded the townspeople of the noble lady stripped of her power by the scion of the Borgia family? We do not know, and probably never will.
Faenza
In 1499, Pope Alexander VI had a free hand against Faenza, after successfully haggling to obtain not only the support of the French king but also the consent of the Venetians (the protectors of Faenza!). But the pope had a good alibi for signing the death warrant for the seignories of Romagna, authorised on 25 September 1499 in Nepi by his daughter Lucrezia Borgia and opening the way for Cesare to fulfil his expansionist aims.
With an overwhelming military force of 14-15,000 men (practically the entire population of Faenza) led by Il Valentino, appointed standard-bearer and captain general of the Church, they swept into Imola on 9 December 1499 to seize power from Ottaviano Riario. Two days later, the manorial lord Dionigi Naldi was forced to submit. Forlì opened its doors on 14 December and on 12 January 1500 the fortress surrendered, despite the defence put up by Caterina Sforza. After a hiatus, the conquest then restarted, this time against Pesaro, abandoned by its lord Giovanni Sforza, Borgia’s brother-in-law and the first husband of Lucrezia. Pandolfo Malatesta also fled Rimini after putting up a brief fight. It would soon be the turn of Faenza. Faced with such a grave risk, the townspeople tried to take defensive measures. The fourteen-year-old Astorgio III Manfredi, the boy-lord of Faenza and papal vicar, attempted to regain favour with the Pontiff by sending the jurisconsult Gabriele Calderoni to Rome in January 1500 to pay the annual rent of 1009 ducats. But the attempt came to nothing. All Calderoni could do was deposit the money in the bank of Stefano Ghinuzzi in Rome, write a protest letter and return to Faenza, faced with Pope Alexander’s curt refusal to appoint Astorgio as papal vicar, revoke the excommunication and interdict on Faenza that had been in place since June. The pope also refused to take the census, a further sign of his irrevocable decision about Faenza.
All the city could do was prepare to defend itself. On 4 November 1500, Il Valentino marched from Rimini with his large army, captained by elite French, Spanish and Italian mercenary captains: Gian Paolo Baglioni, Onorio Savelli, Ferdinando Farnese, Giulio and Paolo Orsini, and Vitellozzo Vitelli. Once in Forlì, Vitellozzo and 500 horses were sent to the Lamone valley. The castles surrendered immediately, partly due to Dionigi Naldi who hated Astorgio and after the assassination of Ottaviano Manfredi had taken the side of Cesare Borgia. The town of Brisighella also fell, with only Compadrino di Ceruno, the lord of Monte Maggiore, putting up a defence— but he was later forced to desist due to lack of food. On 6 November the young Astorgio convened the General Council, which resolved to defend the city to the death. It set up a new governing body, known as the “War Council of 16”: sixteen citizens (4 per district), were granted full authority to perform military business with the aid of 4 elders. At the same meeting, Astorgio asked for assistance from the citizens of Faenza, obtaining 282 ducats. The official act in the Rossini ledger lists the names of the elders, the Council of 16 and the 59 sponsors.
The leader elected to command the military forces was Count Bernardino da Marzano. Niccolò Castagnino, the manorial lord of Faenza and a suspected traitor, was replaced by Giovanni Evangelista Manfredi, the illegitimate son of Galeotto and brother of Astorgio. Astorgio’s grandfather, Giovanni Bentivoglio, sent from Bologna Guido Torelli, the second husband of Francesca (mother of Astorgio) seeking protection for his grandson in Florence or Venice. But the Sixteen were against this idea, considering that the presence of the young lord was a strong encouragement for the townspeople. On 15 November, Borgia also overcame Oriolo castle (Oriolo dei Fichi) which lay outside the valley. Its stores were so well-stocked that the soldiers traded the grain. The next day, 16 November, saw the start of the assault on Faenza, but the disparity of strength between the assailants and the assailed was all too obvious.
Apart from the human element, the decisive factors in the resistance put up by Faenza were the fortress, built in 1371 (now the site of the public hospital) and the robust city walls, built on the orders of Astorgio II in 1462 to complete the work started by Astorgio I from 1377 to 1405 (it was Carlo II (1468-1477) who extended the walls as they are today). Il Valentino pitched his camp to the south of Borgo Durbecco, with his artilleries positioned between Lamone and Marzeno. These encampments gave him the opportunity to strike the Torrione, or keep, on 19 November. The following day, a brutal attack was launched between 6 and 9 in the evening, during which Onorio Savelli, one of Borgia's most valiant captains, was killed. The chroniclers also tell of heroic acts by women. During their advance, the assailants had managed to hang two standards from the walls, but one was thrown into the ditch below and the other was ripped from the standard-bearer by Diamante, the daughter of Bartolomeo Torelli. In 1900, the walls facing Via Lapi, known locally as the “mura d’Montecarlo” were named after her.
For Cesare Borgia, the task proved more arduous than expected, due to the formidable valour of the little town. For the next six months, from late autumn throughout the cold winter until the following spring, there was a sequence of diversionary tactics, negotiations, tricks, traps and deception. “II Valentino”, having failed in his attempts to scale the walls at night time, then proceeded to capture Granarolo, Solarolo, Russi and other castles in the Lamone valley.
In early spring, on the Holy Saturday of 1501 (10 April), the majority of the townspeople gathered in the new cathedral or Duomo, on which work had begun in 1474, undertaking to put aside their differences and disagreements in order to join forces and defend the city. Borgia’s army wasted no time in launching its first attack on the Convent of the Order of Friars Minor, where the Chiesa dell’Osservanza stands today. After holding out for a full six days, according to the chroniclers, the group of young men of Faenza were forced to leave the convent, which became Borgia's headquarters on 18 April. The artilleries were turned against the castle and after the new keep had been reduced to rubble, the bridge from the town to the castle was destroyed with 1,660 blows. Despite this, Il Valentino was pushed back during the fighting and the people of Faenza managed to build another bridge, this time less exposed to the enemy. There was another attack on 20 April, first by the French, then the Spanish and finally the Italians. Despite the onslaught of blows that destroyed the upper part of the stronghold, the assailants were held at bay, with many French and Spanish casualties.
But by now, Faenza was on its knees. With soldiers, food and weapons all in short supply, any further attempt at resistance appeared futile and reckless for the people and their lord. The citizens resolved not to wait for the attack. Astorgio, who was kept informed by a Minor Friar, agreed with his people and urged that the terms of the surrender should bring honour to him and his property. On 25 April 1501, the final surrender was signed, marking the tragic end to the Manfredi seignory. The terms were indeed honourable, but they were not respected. A document of safe passage left the Manfredi family free to organise itself, and a general amnesty was granted to anyone who had opposed the conquest of Faenza. Miguel de Corellas and 500 Spaniards were sent by Borgia to take possession of the castle. On the 26th, the Spanish cardinal Juan Vera was appointed as papal legate, travelling to Faenza to receive the oath of loyalty from its people. At about 9 pm in the evening of the same day, surrounded by weeping townsfolk, the young Astorgio III and Giovanni Evangelista Manfredi left the city to pay tribute to the duke of Valentinois, who welcomed them with apparent benevolence. After being appointed by his father as Duke of Romagna on 29 April, Borgia travelled to Bologna, but the French king ordered him to stop at Sillaro (Castel S. Pietro), where he had to settle for that castle and the one at Castelbolognese. The two Manfredi brothers were escorted over the Appenine passes by De Corellas to Rome where contrary to the terms of surrender they were imprisoned at Castel Sant'Angelo until their terrible deaths on 2 June 1502.
For just a few days in 1503 a sole surviving Manfredi, Francesco, another illegitimate son of Galeotto, was lord of Faenza under the name Astorgio IV. It was merely a brief illusion: the men of the Lamone valley negotiated with the Venetians and the standard of St Mark was raised on the fortress. Soldiers of the Serenissima entered the city on 19 November 1503. It marked the end of a seignory lasting two centuries. Astorgio IV was destined to remain in exile in Venice. This was the demise of a family and the final end to a story of noble power and intrigue. But even today, in the centre of modern Faenza, the family name lives on. Palazzo Manfredi, the piazza, the beautiful loggias and cathedral all speak of the Manfredi dynasty, its culture, art, craftsmen, ceramics, artistic skill and music. The imagery of the castle, towers and armoured doors has not been lost.
Castel Bolognese
Having conquered Faenza, all that Il Valentino had to do was take Bologna and its outpost in Romagna, Castel Bolognese, to complete the territory of his future State. The people of Bologna hurriedly gathered their defences, but knew all too well that their military might was inferior. Two ambassadors were dispatched to the King of France, Louis XII, to find out what the duke had in mind. The king replied that Bologna had nothing to fear as long as the city did not take up arms against him. Giovanni Bentivoglio decided to pacify the tyrant by sending two envoys, Giovanni Marsili and Angelo Ranuzzi, to congratulate Borgia for having captured Faenza. But this was a further affront to Cesare Borgia, already offended by the people of Bologna having given aid to the citizens of Faenza. After inviting the two envoys to Castel San Pietro he set a trap for them, taking them hostage in the castle’s prison. Meanwhile the advance on Bologna continued. Towards the end of April, the duke conquered Bolognese territories including Castel San Pietro, Casalfiumanese and Castel Guelfo, while Vitellozzo Vitelli took Medicina and Varignana in Borgia’s name, gathering the ducal armies along the Idice river. Giovanni Bentivoglio, sensing that he was surrounded (although Louis XII wanted Bologna's independence, he was unable to intervene militarily against Cesare Borgia), resorted to negotiating with the Duke of Valentinois. His request in exchange for the freedom of Bologna sounded dramatic to the Bolognese envoys who ran to Villa Fontana where they found Borgia in residence: the handover of Castel Bolognese and the promise of military aid. Giovanni Bentivoglio acknowledged the strong opposition within the city to the handover of Castel Bolognese because, according to some, he could not sacrifice a castle that had remained so loyal to the fate of Bologna by leaving it to the House of Borgia. However, there was nothing else to be done. Paolo Orsini, the ambassador of Cesare Borgia, entered Bologna on 30 April 1501 to sign the agreement and found the city's army lining Via Emilia from the Savena as far as the city walls.
Shortly afterwards, Cesare Borgia abandoned his camp at Villa Fontana to ride into Castel Bolognese with his army. The exact date of his arrival is not known, but a Bolognese chronicler writes that “The Duke razed the walls to the ground on 29 July 1501 together with [the castle] Villa Cesarina”.
San Leo
In the summer of 1503, it seemed that nothing would ever stop Cesare Borgia. Exploiting his military, political and dynastic gifts to the full, Borgia had conquered much of Romagna, Marche and Umbria. He had invaded the Kingdom of Naples, threatened Tuscany and crushed the uprising of his adversaries who had conspired in the “Magione plot”.
One of the conspirators was still very much alive: his name was Guidobaldo, the last of the Montefeltro family. Having lost Urbino and its state, he had recently managed to regain the strategic location of San Leo, the birthplace of his ancestors. This was intolerable to Cesare Borgia, and so
what happened was this: «San Leo, castello inespugnabile – scrisse il Fantuzzi – fo preso per lo duca di d’Urbino, peroché lo castellano, facendo portare in rocha un gran legno a j omini, lo inganorno, perché como fonno sul ponte della rocha, lasarno andare el legno e, levato il romore, intrarno dentro e prese el castellano e la fortezza per lo suo duca Guido Ubaldo». The manorial lord was the governor of the town of San Leo, clearly still loyal to the Montefeltro family, while the castle was kept by a military commander of Il Valentino.
On 2 July, Cesare Borgia arrived in person, to lead the assault on San Leo. But: "Many of the people outside were killed every day, compelling the Guasconi to leave. These 800 men had been sent as reinforcements on 16 May, led by a certain M. Pietro Spagnuolo, followed by other military commanders. One night M. Pietro had to create a trench, and he was forced to witness the death of three soldiers of his, including a commander of the Crossbowmen".
They resorted to the usual barbaric methods common to any war: the taking of innocent hostages. “They were led to the Court of Urbino, the seat of Borgia’s ministers: many women who had left infants and husbands in San Leo, or relatives; the intention was to beat them in San Leo and to see whether by that road they could obtain the fortress”.
But the people of San Leo did not give in. The assault continued, as Borgia became increasingly infuriated: «Alli 10 quelli che erano accampati sotto S. Leo fecero un bastione e vi piantarono l’artiglieria, ma gli altri di dentro essendo stati a vedere il fine, ed in quel mentre avendo drizzata la loro verso il loco munito, subito in un punto dettero fuoco, e ripianando il bastione copersero tutti i Pezzi del nemico, ammazzando di essi 20 in circa in maniera che non trovassero più guastatori, e quelli che vi erano, si misero in fuga».
Borgia, exasperated, was called elsewhere as trouble was coming from every direction. On 11 August 1503 he left his increasingly demoralised men, and on the 28th they would be finally routed by Guidobaldo, who had travelled down from the north.
That was not the worst of it, however. On 18 August, Pope Alexander VI died, marking the beginning of the end of for Cesare Borgia.
Caterina Sforza
Caterina Sforza (c. 1463 - 1509, Florence) was the illegitimate daughter of the future duke of Milan, Galeazzo Maria, and of Lucrezia Landriani. She was recognised by her father and in 1477 married Girolamo Riario, nephew of Pope Sixtus IV. Caterina, who was the duchess of Imola and later, in 1480, also the duchess of Forlì, was an energetic and feisty character. For a short period after the death of Sixtus IV (1484) she occupied Castel S. Angelo. After her husband was killed in 1488, Caterina retreated to the castle of Ravaldino near Forlì, while the city surrendered to the papacy and held on until the Sforza-Bentivoglio army reinstated the seignory of the town, which she held along with that of Imola, as regent for her son Ottaviano. She governed with her lover Iacopo Feo, playing a significant role in Italian politics at the time of the fall of Charles VIII—supporting first the Aragonese, then the French. After Feo died in 1495, in 1496 or 97 she married in secret Giovanni de' Medici, with whom she had a son, Giovanni dalle Bande Nere (1498). Caterina Sforza put up a spirited defence against Cesare Borgia and prepared to withstand an attack on her town. She began to recruit and train new soldiers, stockpiling weapons and food before strengthening the fortifications, particularly the castle at Ravaldino, where she herself resided. But the Borgias were a formidable enemy: after taking Imola and Forlì, they launched an assault on Ravaldino. It was 19 December 1499. Caterina put up a strenuous fight, personally brandishing weapons on her shoulders, until on 12 January 1500, after a series of bloody skirmishes, Cesare Borgia’s men breached the walls of Ravaldino and the countess was captured. Sforza immediately declared herself a prisoner of the French (allies of Duke Valentino), in the hope that she would benefit from a French law prohibiting the capture of women as prisoners of war. But in vain. Cesare Borgia took her with him to Rome, where she was apparently well received by Alexander VI and given accommodation in the splendid Belvedere Palace at the top of the Vatican Hill. But after a failed escape attempt and following accusations that she had tried to assassinate the pope with a series of poisoned letters, the proud countess was imprisoned in Castel Sant’Angelo, a cruel twist of fate as this was the same fortress that had defended her many years earlier.
And now, a look at the towns and cities of Romagna at the time of Caterina Sforza...
Forlì
The castle of Ravaldino near Forlì is a fortified citadel: it was also the seat of the army led by Caterina Sforza and Girolamo Riario. The castle was the principal residence of the noble pair and the seat of the seignory following the destruction of Palazzo Riario, which stood in the central square of Forlì, after Girolamo was assassinated by the Orsi family. Here the countess Sforza would remain for a long time, surrounded by her spices and herb garden. It was to be the scene of some of the most famous episodes of her life. This was where Caterina built her famous “Paradiso”, which was merely an annex to her private rooms, and a courtyard that has now unfortunately been lost. To the east of the castle it is still possible to see the point where Cesare Borgia breached the walls, below the crest of Riario Sforza. Unfortunately it is only possible to see part of the castle, from the outside.
Forlimpopoli
Although Forlimpopoli was not the location of critical moments in the life of Caterina, we do know that its castle was an important and strategic military location and apparently also a venue for diplomatic meetings.
Terra del Sole
Designed as a fortified city and not just an ordinary fortress, this splendid Renaissance citadel is a pleasant surprise for visitors at any time of year. It was built on the orders of Cosimo I De’ Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany and nephew of Caterina Sforza, and is one of the few towns whose exact date of construction is known: 8 December 1564. The citadel is built from Macigno stone (blue-grey sandstone) and was known as the “granary” of Tuscany: its armouries and storehouses held the grain harvested from the fields of Romagna and stockpiled by Cosimo for times of need. The perfect proportions and aesthetics of the town’s construction made it the “ideal city” that Cosimo sought to create according to the canons of Italian Renaissance architecture.
Castrocaro Terme
This town was for a long time the boundary between Romagna and the Florentine domains of the Medici family. At the time of Caterina Sforza, this territory was a place of passage, complete with watchtowers and customs offices. The Countess would often come here to meet envoys from Florence. The fortress of Castrocaro, an admirable example of a fortified medieval building, is set in a stunning location as it is built entirely on the rocky spur overlooking the historic village. It was built in a strategic location, on what remains of an ancient underwater mountain dating from the Pliocene era (10 million years ago) and formed of sand-limestone full of noteworthy marine fossils. The castle, once part of the estate of Caterina Sforza, is today one of the best-kept examples in the region. The panoramic views are breathtaking and take the visitor on a journey back in time. Legend has it that this is where Caterina was secretly married to Giovanni de’ Medici, her third husband and the envoy sent by the Medici family to the region of Romagna—the building also conceals dungeons, prison cells and the terrifying “pozzo a rasoio” (a deep well presumably filled with sharp blades) which awaited those condemned to death. On the hills around Castrocaro there is also the Castle of Monte Poggiolo, built in 1471. Although sadly not open to visitors, this castle is famous for having been one of the most effective fortifications and strongholds of Caterina Sforza. Inside the keep of the castle is the notorious “Queen’s well”, a deep shaft in which (legend has it), the Countess would dispose of unfortunate lovers - and enemies. It appears that there was a secret underground tunnel linking the castle at Monte Poggiolo with the one at Ravaldino (Forlì) and that Caterina would use this route to escape from danger. Unfortunately, no trace of the tunnel remains today.
Riolo Terme
The Castle of Riolo is one of the most interesting fortresses in the region, because of its condition. Built at the end of the 14th century, this military stronghold is of the “transition” type, combining medieval architectural features with Renaissance elements such as the moat, the murder holes used to drop heavy objects on the approaching enemy and chambers through which archers could fire arrows closer to the ground. The castle, a Sforza stronghold, may have been visited by Caterina.
Dozza
The castle of Dozza is a medieval fortress converted by Caterina Sforza into a stronghold and used as a noble residence during the Renaissance period. Perched at the top of the hills around Imola, a strategic defensive location, the castle is surrounded by the enchanting little village of Rocca di Dozza, just a short distance from Imola itself. Caterina Sforza would often stay here when travelling around Romagna. The interior contains a number of grisly but fascinating spaces such as the notorious "pozzo a rasoio" or “well of blades”, the torture chamber, the noblemens’ rooms and the castle kitchens, all perfectly preserved. There are splendid panoramic views from the towers, taking visitors on a journey back in time.
Imola
Founded in the 13th century, Imola Castle is a splendid example of a medieval-Renaissance fortress. Alterations were ordered by the Sforza court of Milan, between 1472 and 1484, to accommodate the weaponry of the time. The castle has detached outbuildings or ravelins, circular corner towers and embrasures decorated with emblems of the Riario-Sforza seignory, and the Paradiso building, used as residential quarters and later used mainly as a prison between the 16th and 20th centuries. This castle and the one at Forlì were the residences of Caterina Sforza, who would frequently stay here, particularly during the early years of her governorship of Romagna. Today, the castle is home to the public museums, which contain a rich display of ceramic artefacts and weaponry used at the time that the fortress was used to defend the area.
Bagnara di Romagna
The village is set in the lush green countryside around Ravenna, to the south-west of Lugo along the ‘Stradelli Guelfi’, the route that runs parallel to Via Emilia, which once linked castles, churches and noble residences from Bologna as far as the Adriatic Sea. Bagnara is a rare example of a beautifully-preserved medieval “castrum”, and a rarity in Romagna. The network of fortified buildings includes the Sforza castle, perhaps once visited by Caterina Sforza, and the boundary wall, all of which can still be seen today.
